India(National Level)

National Urban Transport Policy(NUTP): Emphasising public transport

The Ministry of Urban Development launched this in 2006. This strategy aims to reduce the number of vehicles on the road by developing public transport as well as non-motorized means of transport like cycling. This strategy also calls for the use of cleaner technologies and for reduced travel distance within major cities.

This strategy is successful because

• it was linked with India's Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban renewal mission(JNNURM) which is a scheme launched by the Ministry of Urban Development that make it successful. The funding JNNURM received enabled national and state governments to design and implement urban transport networks. For example, the NUTP and JNNURM lead to the improvement in pedestrian infrastructure around transport zones in Hyderabad, lead to the development of cycle tracks in Pune and lead to fare integration between Ahmedabad's existing transport system. A new Bus Rapid Transit System(BRTS) is also developed in Ahmedabad and this encourages people to take public transport. In 2006, 20 cities in India have BTRS. In 2010, 48 more cities in India have BTRS

• it led to the expansion of railroads. The implementation of NUTP in Delhi has reduced the usage of 91000 vehicles which reduce the greenhouse emission by 6.3 million tonnes annually. The metro rail built in Delhi is 186 km long and it carries more than 1.8 million passengers daily. In fact, the United Nations awarded Delhi the Certified Emission Reductions worth $9.5 million. 

However, this strategy has limitations where

• Public transport in cities ought to have an extensive infrastructure in order to be effective. The infrastructure consists of rail systems, road network and comprehensive bus feeder systems. Such systems need lots of time and human resources to be built.
• The large capital costs can pose a challenge to developing public transport. It is because in one single city, it can take millions or even billions of dollars to develop such infrastructure and it takes many years for construction to be done
• There is an increasing number of people that can afford private vehicles. This would reduce the demands for public transport

Energy Labelling Programme: Reducing Energy Consumption

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency enforced an energy labelling programme in 2007, authorised by India's Energy Conservation Act of 2001, informing consumers of the amount of energy the product consumes. Products that use lesser energy are sold at a cheaper price. This programme encourages consumers to use products that uses lesser energy which reduces India's greenhouse gas emission. Energy Conservation requires the effort to reduce energy consumption.

This strategy is successful because

• labelling frost-free refrigerators, florescent lamps and air-conditioners is compulsory; it is optional to label other appliances like fans, television sets, washing machines, computers etc. There is also an increase in the sales of products with energy labels since the start of the the programme in 2007 which lead to a rise in demand for energy-efficient products. In fact, in 2011, two major laptop manufacturers pledged to adopt the labelling system, expecting other major manufacturers to follow

However, the strategy has limitations where 

• Many other appliances like battery chargers, computer monitors, heat pumps, freezers etc. have not been labelled as energy-efficient.
• Many people are still unaware of the labelling programme
• This strategy has hindered the government's promise to use coal-fired power station to increase electricity access for its citizens because coal-fired power stations emit large amount of greenhouse gas.

The Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment(INCCA): Promoting India-specific climate change research

This strategy is launched in October 2009. INCCA is a network comprising of 220 scientist from 120 research institutions aiming to promote domestic research on climate change. The research research on problems and risks related to climate change and this allows policies to be formulated and implemented.

This strategy is successful because 

• in November 2010, INCCA released its first research assessment on the predicted impacts of climate change in India for the next 20 years. This includes affecting the weather, sea levels, ecosystems, biodiversity, agriculture, human health and water supply. The research networks recommended continuous and systematic observation of India's physical and biological systems. It also recommend establishing region specific committees to monitor the effects of climate change and develop action plans for specific areas in India.

However, this strategy has limitations where

• India has a fast developing economy. Large amount of greenhouse gases are emitted from industrial processes and urbanisations. Therefore, the recommendations by the INCCA to reduce greenhouse gas emission may not be implemented by the government as they may affect India's economic development.

Singapore(National Level)

Singapore Green Plan 2012:Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by using natural gas as an energy source

The Ministry of the Environment launched this strategy in 2002 and it aims to generate 60% of Singapore's energy using natural gas by 2012. Natural gas is a cleaner form of energy compared to coal as it doesn't produce smoke.

This strategy is successful under the following ways

• 79% of Singapore's electricity was being generated from natural gas as early as 2010. This exceeded the Ministry of Environment's target ahead of schedule.

However, the strategy has limitations under the following ways

• natural gas needs complex treatment plants to process and pipelines to transport. This pipelines have high maintenance costs because they are laid underground and have to be regularly checked for leakage.

Green Mark Scheme: Constructing 'green' buildings

This strategy is launched by the Building Construction Authority in 2005. This strategy allows buildings to be evaluated and certified according to how energy-efficient and environmentally friendly they are. The strategy aims to encourage more new 'green' buildings which are more energy-efficient. Buildings which are more energy-efficient uses lesser energy to do the same work. An example is the 'green' buildings that uses energy generated from solar energy.

This strategy is successful because

• the existing 'green' buildings in Singapore have reported an energy saving of 15 to 35% compared to conventional buildings. This type of buildings cuts down on greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the use of fossil fuels to generate electricity  

However, the strategy has limitations because

• the construction companies and developers are unwilling to adopt new ideas and materials to build 'green' buildings.. 'Green' buildings are also more expensive to build. as 'green' materials are more expensive

 

Plant-A-Tree Programme: Planting more trees an plants

Tree planting day is first started in 1971 by the Garden City Fund and Singapore Environment Council. They aim to maintain Singapore's status as a Garden City by planting trees. Residents are encouraged to donate money to buy a tree or take part in tree planting events that take place monthly throughout Singapore.

This strategy is successful because

• it caused 60000 trees to be planted annually throughout Singapore by the National Parks Board.

However, the strategy has limitations because

• trees take many years to mature, so the positive effect of tree planting will take lots of time to come true.



Copenhagen Conference(International Level)

In 2009, Copenhagen hosted a United Nations Climate Change Conference. The conference is hosted to improve on the measures developed by the Kyoto Protocol to deal with the issue of climate change. 

Success of Copenhagen Conference

The Copenhagen Conference successfully brought together a group of important political figures to discuss the measures that will address the issue of climate change effectively. During the conference, the Copenhagen Accord was drawn up. It is an international agreement with the long-term goal of keeping any increases in global temperature to within 2°C compared to the global temperature in 1850. 

In the conference, targets for reducing the greenhouse gas emission were successfully set up. Developed countries committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by various amounts by 2020. Developed countries also promised to give a total of US$30 billion to less developed countries from 2010 to 2012 and provide long-term financial aid of US$100 billion annually by 2020. The money given will help the less developed countries reduce their greenhouse gas emission.

Limitations of Copenhagen Conference

Some countries are unable to reduce emission to within 2°C of the temperature before 1850. There was also no agreement on how to reduce the greenhouse gas emission which makes the countries difficult to reduce greenhouse gas. In fact, the target the countries set were insufficient to reduce emission to within 2°C of the temperatures before 1850.

Many developed countries did not sign the Copenhagen Accord so the accord is not legally binding. The targets set were somehow a guideline and not a condition which make many countries not keep to their targets.

Kyoto Protocol(International Level)

The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement related to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which is an international convention set up with the aim of cutting down on the levels of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Many countries came together to sign the Kyoto Protocol and came up with ways to address climate change and start practicing the ways.  The Kyoto Protocol was first commenced in Kyoto, Japan on 11 December 1997 and action was taken on 16 February 2005.
Under the Protocol, various countries were given certain targets to reduce greenhouse gas emission. 37 developed countries and European countries were given greater responsibility to reduce greenhouse gases because these countries had been responsible for the high level of greenhouse emission for a long time since it had more than 150 years of industrial activities. Those developed countries were required to reduce their greenhouse gas emission by at least 5% compared to the greenhouse emission in 1990 from 2008 to 2012. The developed countries were given extra responsibility such as to aid less developed countries reduce their greenhouse gas emission, depending on their ability

Success of the Kyoto Protocol

Many countries like Finland, Greece and Ireland, managed to met or even exceed the targets set by the Kyoto Protocol.
Countries needed to monitor and report their greenhouse gas emission to ensure that they were progressing towards their emission targets.
The Kyoto Protocol was also successful in encouraging sustainable development. The Clean Development Mechanism and Certified Emission Reduction praise countries that carried out emission reduction projects like installing energy efficient infrastructure in less developed countries. Clean Development Mechanism not only encourage sustainable development, but also helped developed countries reduce their greenhouse emissions when they carry out emission reduction projects in less developed countries

Limitation of the Kyoto Protocol

There are still some countries like Denmark, Austria and Spain that did not achieve their greenhouse emission targets. 

The Kyoto Protocol did not make countries with low greenhouse gas emission compulsory to help other countries. Example, it is not compulsory for countries with low greenhouse gas emission to give energy-efficient technology to countries with high greenhouse gas emission. Therefore, countries with high greenhouse gas emission may not be able to achieve their emission targets easily. 

Countries that did not sign the Kyoto Protocol continued to emit large amount of greenhouse gas. This make the Kyoto Protocol have limited impacts on global greenhouse gas emissions.